From Tamil alienation to civil war and the 13th Amendment

Detail

1. Tamil demands and how they were refused

• Majoritarianism means the majority community rules the country as it wishes and ignores what the minority wants or needs. In Sri Lanka, Sinhala majoritarian policies made Sri Lankan Tamils feel left out (alienation).
• Tamil demands (NCERT): Tamil parties and groups struggled for three things:
• Tamil as an official language (a language the government uses for its work).
• Regional autonomy, meaning their own provinces could run many of their own affairs.

• Equal chances in education and jobs.

• Tamils asked again and again for autonomy for the Tamil provinces. The government refused each time.

• Tamil Eelam: from the 1980s, several Tamil organisations wanted an independent Tamil state, called Eelam, in the north and east of Sri Lanka.
• Vaddukoddai Resolution (1976): the TULF (Tamil United Liberation Front) formally adopted the demand for a separate Tamil state.
• LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam): an armed group led by V. Prabhakaran. It used guerrilla methods (surprise attacks by small armed groups) and terror methods to fight for Eelam in the north and east [8][9].
• The LTTE was formed in 1972. Until 1983 it had only about 50–60 hard-core fighters [8][9].

2. Black July (1983): the trigger for the civil war

• What happened: the LTTE ambushed and killed 13 soldiers in 1983 [8][9].
• Organised anti-Tamil riots followed in July 1983 in Colombo and other places [8][9].
• 400–600 Tamils were killed and about 100,000 were made homeless. About 60,000 fled to India [8][9].
• Many refugees went to Tamil Nadu. The riots helped the LTTE recruit more fighters and made the conflict much bigger [8][9].

3. The civil war (1983–2009)

• Sri Lankan civil war: a war between the Sri Lankan state and Tamil militant groups, mainly the LTTE.
• What it cost (NCERT):
• Thousands of people on both sides were killed.
• Many families fled the country as refugees, including to camps in Tamil Nadu.
• Many more people lost their livelihoods.

• It was a severe setback to the country's social, cultural and economic life.

• Scale: more than 50,000 people had died by 1997. Estimates for the whole war are 70,000–80,000 dead, and many more were displaced [8][9].

• End: in May 2009 the government took the last LTTE stronghold, and the LTTE was defeated militarily [8][9].
• UN Secretary-General's Panel of Experts (2011):
• Members: Marzuki Darusman of Indonesia (chair), Yasmin Sooka of South Africa and Steven Ratner of the USA. Work began in September 2010 [10].
• Dates: the report was submitted on 12 April 2011 and made public on 25 April 2011 [11].
• Findings: it found credible reports of war crimes by both sides [10].
  • Government: 5 categories of allegations, including killing civilians by widespread shelling and blocking humanitarian aid [10].
  • LTTE: 6 categories, including using civilians as a human buffer (a shield of people) and killing civilians who tried to escape [10].
• Main recommendation: Sri Lanka should start a real accountability process, beginning with genuine investigations [10][11].
• In September 2011 the Secretary-General sent the report to the UN Human Rights Council [12].
• Casualty figures for the final months are still disputed.

4. India's role: the Indo-Lanka Accord (1987)

• Signed: in Colombo on 29 July 1987 by Sri Lankan President J.R. Jayewardene and Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. It came into force on signature [2].
• Basic principles in the Accord [2]:
• Sri Lanka's unity, sovereignty and territorial integrity would be protected (Para 1.1).
• Sri Lanka is a "multi-ethnic and a multi-lingual plural society" of Sinhalese, Tamils, Muslims (Moors) and Burghers (Para 1.2).
• The Northern and Eastern Provinces were accepted as areas of historical habitation (where people have lived for a long time) of Tamil-speaking peoples (Para 1.4).

Timeline set by the Accord [2]:

Step	What had to happen	Deadline or rule
1	Fighting stops across the island	Within 48 hours of signing (Para 2.9)
2	Militants surrender arms and the army returns to barracks	Within 72 hours of the ceasefire (Para 2.9)
3	Emergency lifted in the North and East	By 15 August 1987 (Para 2.9)
4	Provincial Council elections, with Indian observers	Before 31 December 1987 (Para 2.8)
5	Interim period: North + East form one unit with one Governor, one Chief Minister and one Board of Ministers	From the council elections until the referendum (Para 2.2)
6	Referendum in the Eastern Province on staying merged with the North	On or before 31 December 1988. A simple majority decides. The President may postpone it (Paras 2.3, 2.6)

• Languages (Para 2.18): Sinhala stays the official language. Tamil and English also become official languages [2].
• India's duties [2]:
• India would underwrite and guarantee the agreement (Para 2.14).
• India would stop its territory being used against Sri Lanka's unity (Para 2.16a).
• The Indian Navy and Coast Guard would work with Sri Lanka's navy (Para 2.16b).
• India would give military assistance if Sri Lanka asked for it (Para 2.16c).

• India would speed up the return of Sri Lankan refugees from Tamil Nadu (Para 2.16d).

• Amnesty (Para 2.11): prisoners held under the Prevention of Terrorism Act would get a general pardon [2].

• Annexure, para 6: the President of Sri Lanka could invite an Indian peace-keeping contingent to enforce the ceasefire [2]. This became the IPKF (Indian Peace Keeping Force), which served from 1987 to 1990.
• Aftermath: the LTTE did not accept the deal and fought the IPKF. The LTTE assassinated Rajiv Gandhi in 1991.

5. The 13th Amendment (1987)

• 13th Amendment to the Sri Lankan Constitution (1987): a change to Sri Lanka's constitution made under the Accord. It was passed together with the Provincial Councils Act (1987).
• It created elected provincial councils with devolved powers. Devolution means the centre hands some powers to lower levels of government.

• It made Tamil an official language, with English as a link language (a shared language used between communities).

• Merger and de-merger: the North and East were temporarily merged, as the Accord had planned [2]. The Eastern referendum was never held. Sri Lanka's Supreme Court de-merged the two provinces in 2006.

• Gaps in implementation:
• Police and land powers were never handed to the provinces.

• Provincial council elections have not been held since the councils' terms ended.

• India's position:

• India welcomed the Northern Provincial Council election (2013). It asked for full implementation of the 13th Amendment "and going beyond it" [6].
• 2020 Virtual Bilateral Summit: PM Modi asked Sri Lanka to meet Tamil hopes for equality, justice, peace and respect within a united Sri Lanka. He linked this to reconciliation and the 13th Amendment [3].
• India has hoped that Sri Lanka will keep its promise to implement the 13th Amendment and hold Provincial Council elections [4][5].
• President Anura Kumara Disanayaka held talks with PM Modi in New Delhi on 16 December 2024 [5].

6. After the war: reconciliation and accountability

• Reconciliation means healing relations between communities after a conflict. Accountability means holding people answerable for wrongs done.
• LLRC (Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission), 2011: Sri Lanka's own inquiry into the war.
• UNHRC resolutions: the UN Human Rights Council has passed resolutions asking for accountability and reconciliation in Sri Lanka.
• Problems still open: return of land held by the military, missing persons, and militarisation of the north (a heavy army presence in daily life).
• India's development help in Tamil areas and elsewhere [7]:
• 60,000 houses in 4 phases of the Indian Housing Project, costing more than ₹1,800 crore.
• Jaffna Cultural Centre and upgrading of the Northern Railway line.
• Chennai–Jaffna flights resumed in December 2022.

• Nagapattinam–Kankesanthurai ferry started in October 2023.

• Economic crisis (2022): India gave Sri Lanka close to USD 4 billion in help [7]:

• a USD 400 million currency swap from the RBI;
• a USD 1 billion credit line for food, medicines and fuel;

• about USD 2 billion of deferred payments under the Asian Clearing Union.

• New government (2024): Anura Kumara Disanayaka of the National People's Power (NPP) became President in 2024 [7]. The NPP promised a new constitution. Its effect on devolution is still to be seen.

• Indian Origin Tamils: these are a separate group from the Sri Lankan Tamils of the north and east. About 1.6 million of them (unofficial estimate) live mostly in the tea and rubber plantations of the Central, Uva and Sabaragamuwa Provinces [7].

7. NCERT exercises

Annette vs Selvi (NCERT box)

	Annette (Belgium)	Selvi (northern Sri Lanka)
Wants	Teaching in Dutch, her mother tongue	Tamil-medium teaching
Who controls education	Community government of her language group. In Belgium, power over education is shared with the language communities	The central government, which follows majoritarian policies
Better chance	Yes. Annette is more likely to get it.	Less likely

Exercise 7: Belgium vs Sri Lanka statements

Statement	Correct?
A. In Belgium, the Dutch-speaking majority tried to impose its domination on the French-speaking minority	Wrong. Belgium chose accommodation, not domination
B. Sri Lankan government policies sought Sinhala majority dominance	Correct
C. Tamils demanded federal power-sharing to protect their culture, language and equal opportunity	Correct
D. Belgium's change from a unitary to a federal government prevented a split on language lines	Correct

• Answer: B, C and D only.

Prelims Hooks

• Indo-Lanka Accord: signed in Colombo on 29 July 1987 by Rajiv Gandhi and J.R. Jayewardene. It came into force on signature [2].
• Para 2.18 of the Accord: Sinhala is the official language, and Tamil and English are also official languages [2].
• Accord deadlines: Eastern Province referendum on or before 31 Dec 1988, decided by simple majority. Provincial Council elections before 31 Dec 1987 [2].
• Trap: the North-East merger was interim (temporary). The referendum was never held, and Sri Lanka's Supreme Court de-merged the provinces in 2006.
• 13th Amendment (1987) + Provincial Councils Act (1987): created elected provincial councils. Police and land powers were never devolved.
• IPKF: in Sri Lanka 1987–1990. It was deployed under Annexure para 6 read with Paras 2.14 and 2.16(c) of the Accord [2].
• Vaddukoddai Resolution (1976): the TULF demanded a separate state. The LTTE was formed in 1972 [8][9].
• UN Panel of Experts (2011): chaired by Marzuki Darusman. It found credible allegations of war crimes by both the government and the LTTE [10].
• Black July (1983): an LTTE ambush killed 13 soldiers. Riots followed, about 60,000 Tamils fled to India, and the civil war began [8][9].
• Annette vs Selvi: Annette (Belgium) is more likely to get mother-tongue teaching, because Belgium's community governments control education.

Mains Points

• Majoritarianism weakens unity. Sri Lanka refused autonomy for the Tamil provinces again and again. That refusal turned demands for language rights and equal jobs into a demand for Eelam and a 26-year war. Belgium shared power between its language communities and stayed united. Use this as the NCERT case for prudential (reduces conflict) and moral (spirit of democracy) arguments for power-sharing (GS-II).
• Devolution on paper vs in practice. The 13th Amendment created provincial councils but held back police and land powers, and council elections have stopped. Autonomy that exists only on paper does not build trust. Compare this with India's federal design: linguistic states, Schedule-based division of powers and regular state elections.
• India's dilemma (GS-II, International Relations). The Accord made India a guarantor [2]. The IPKF experience and Rajiv Gandhi's assassination show the costs of direct involvement. India now uses diplomacy, such as joint statements on the 13th Amendment and PC elections [3][4][5], and development aid in Tamil areas [7]. It must also balance Tamil Nadu's concerns with respect for Sri Lanka's sovereignty.
• Peace needs justice. Military victory in 2009 did not bring reconciliation. Lasting peace depends on accountability [10], return of land, answers on missing persons, demilitarisation and real power-sharing. These are the tests for any new Sri Lankan constitution.