UPSC Prelims 2021 Q56: Seabed Mining in International Waters — Explained
Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
3. 'Rare earth minerals' are present on seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement-wise explanation
- 1: incorrect — The Global Ocean Commission was an independent advocacy panel on the high seas. It was launched in February 2013, published its report 'From Decline to Recovery: A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean' in June 2014, and wound up in 2016. It had no legal power to grant licences of any kind. Exploration contracts for minerals in the seabed beyond national jurisdiction (the 'Area') are issued by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). The ISA was set up under UNCLOS in 1994 and is based in Kingston, Jamaica.
- 2: correct — India signed a 15-year contract with the ISA on 25 March 2002 to explore polymetallic nodules over about 75,000 sq km of the Central Indian Ocean Basin. The contract has since been extended. In 2016 India signed a second ISA contract, for polymetallic sulphides along the Central and South-West Indian Ridges. So India already held seabed exploration licences in international waters well before 2021.
- 3: correct — Deep-sea deposits beyond national jurisdiction contain rare earth elements. Polymetallic (manganese) nodules on abyssal plains and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on seamounts take up rare earths from seawater over millions of years. USGS studies treat these deposits as possible future sources of rare earths. Deep-sea muds in the Pacific have also been reported to be rich in rare earths.
How to eliminate
Statement 3 is safe from general reading: deep-sea mining is usually justified by critical minerals such as cobalt, nickel and rare earths, so it is very likely true. Every option except the one built from 1 and 2 contains it, so that option goes. Statement 2 can be judged from the Deep Ocean Mission news of 2021. Reports on the mission repeatedly said India had been allotted 75,000 sq km in the Central Indian Ocean Basin for nodule exploration, which keeps statement 2. That leaves the choice between '2 and 3' and '1, 2 and 3', so everything turns on statement 1. The fact to remember is this: only the International Seabed Authority, created under UNCLOS, licenses exploration and mining of the international seabed. Anything else with 'Ocean' in its name, such as the Global Ocean Commission or the Global Ocean Observing System, is a distractor. A 'Commission' that grants mining licences should also make you suspicious, because licensing needs a treaty body with legal authority.
Know more
Who governs the seabed beyond national jurisdiction?
UNCLOS (1982) calls the seabed beyond national limits 'the Area' and declares its resources the common heritage of mankind. No country can claim them. The International Seabed Authority (ISA), based in Kingston, Jamaica (operational 1994), regulates every mineral activity there. It issues 15-year exploration contracts to states or to companies sponsored by states. It is still drafting the 'Mining Code' that would permit commercial exploitation. Inside its own Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles), a country licenses mining under its own law. In India that law is the Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, 2002.
Three deep-sea mineral types
| Deposit | Where it forms | Key metals |
|---|---|---|
| Polymetallic nodules | Abyssal plains, ~4,000–6,000 m | Manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt, rare earths |
| Polymetallic sulphides | Hydrothermal vents on mid-ocean ridges | Copper, zinc, gold, silver |
| Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts | Flanks of seamounts | Cobalt, rare earths, platinum |
India's ISA contracts
| Year | Mineral | Area |
|---|---|---|
| 2002 | Polymetallic nodules | Central Indian Ocean Basin, ~75,000 sq km |
| 2016 | Polymetallic sulphides | Central and South-West Indian Ridges |
| 2025 | Polymetallic sulphides | Carlsberg Ridge, ~10,000 sq km |
In 1987 India became the first country to be registered as a 'Pioneer Investor' for nodules. The Deep Ocean Mission was approved on 16 June 2021 at Rs 4,077 crore for 2021–26, with the Ministry of Earth Sciences as nodal ministry. Its components include an integrated system for mining nodules from about 6,000 m and a manned submersible (Samudrayaan/Matsya-6000). Commercial mining has to wait until the ISA finalises its exploitation rules.
Do not confuse: the ISA (minerals of the Area) is different from the High Seas Treaty (BBNJ) (marine biodiversity of the high seas) and from the Global Ocean Commission, a 2013–16 advocacy panel with no regulatory powers.
In the news
On 16 June 2021 the Union Cabinet approved the Deep Ocean Mission, which includes mining polymetallic nodules from India's ISA-allotted site in the Central Indian Ocean Basin. In the same month, Nauru's notice under the ISA's 'two-year rule' put the global rules on deep-sea mining in the news, a few months before the October 2021 Prelims.
NCERT Concepts to Revise
- International Seabed Authority: Statement 1 asks which body actually licenses mineral exploration on the international seabed.
- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: The treaty that defines 'the Area' beyond national jurisdiction and created the body that regulates its minerals.
- Deep-sea mining: Statements 2 and 3 concern what deep-sea mining targets and who holds exploration rights to it.
- Blue economy: The Deep Ocean Mission, the news context for this question, is framed as part of India's blue economy push.