Balkan problem

Also called: Balkans · Topic: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe · NCERT: Class 10, Ch 1 "The Rise of Nationalism in Europe"

Meaning

The Balkan problem was the conflict in the Balkans after 1871. This was a rough, mountainous region of south-eastern Europe with many ethnic groups, broadly called Slavs. As the Ottoman Empire (the Turkish empire ruled from Istanbul) broke up, the peoples it had ruled became new states. These states fought each other over land. At the same time, Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary competed for control of the region.

It matters because the Balkans were the most serious source of tension in Europe after 1871. The region shows how nationalism, joined with imperialism, led Europe into the First World War in 1914.

Explanation

Background: nationalism changes after 1871

• Before 1871, nationalism in Europe went together with liberal-democratic ideas:
• freedom of the individual
• equality before law
• constitutions

• the right of each people to have its own nation-state

• After 1871, nationalism became a narrow creed with limited ends:

• Nationalist groups became intolerant of each other.
• They were ready for war rather than for debate.

• Each group wanted gains only for itself, not freedom for all peoples.

• The Great Powers used nationalism as a tool:

• They supported the nationalism of subject peoples (peoples ruled by another empire) inside rival empires.
• They did not do this to free those peoples. They did it to serve their own imperialist aims: land, trade routes and prestige.

Why the Balkans became the danger spot

• The region today covers Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
• It is a mountainous, rough area where many ethnic groups lived side by side.
• A large part of it was ruled by the Ottoman Empire.
• The Ottoman Empire was breaking up:
• It tried to modernise and reform itself, but the reforms failed.
• As it grew weaker, its European provinces slipped away.

• One by one, the nationalities broke away and declared independence.

• History was their weapon:

• Each group said it was only taking back its 'long-lost independence', a freedom it said foreign rulers had taken long ago.

How it unfolded: sequence of events

• 3 March 1878: Treaty of San Stefano. It promised the Balkan states large territories. [3]
• 13 June – 13 July 1878: Congress of Berlin. It was dominated by the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
• It recognised the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, but with much less land than San Stefano had promised. [3]

• It allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and the district of Novi Pazar. One empire simply replaced another in these Slav lands. [3]

• Rival claims among the new states:

• The new Balkan states were deeply jealous of one another.
• Each claimed the same pieces of land, saying "this was once ours by history".

• Borders kept being redrawn by force, so the map was never settled.

• 1912–13: First Balkan War.

• The Balkan League (an alliance of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) fought the Ottoman Empire.
• The Ottoman collapse was so complete that an armistice (a halt to fighting) came on 3 December 1912. [2]

• The peace signed at London on 30 May 1913 took away almost all of the Ottoman Empire's remaining European land, including all of Macedonia and Albania. [2]

• 1913: Second Balkan War.

• The winners quarrelled over the spoils, mainly Macedonia.

• Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece, and Romania joined against Bulgaria. [2]

• 10 August 1913: Treaty of Bucharest. [2]

• Serbia took northern and central Macedonia.
• Greece took southern Macedonia.
• Romania took southern Dobruja.
• Bulgaria got only a small part of Macedonia and a strip of Aegean coast with the port of Dedeağaç (Alexandroúpolis).

The Great Powers and the result

• Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary competed in the Balkans for:
• trade, and control of routes and ports
• colonies and spheres of influence (areas where one power has the main say)

• naval and military might, as each wanted a bigger fleet and army than the others

• Each power used the "freedom" of small nations as a cover for its own expansion.

• The final spark:
• On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist, shot dead Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie at Sarajevo. [4]
• Princip was linked to the Black Hand, a secret society that wanted to end Austro-Hungarian rule in the Balkans and unite the South Slav peoples. [4]

• A month later, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The alliance systems pulled the other powers in. [4]

• The verdict: nationalism, joined with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.

• Afterwards, the idea spread outside Europe:
• In the colonies, people built anti-imperial nationalist movements (movements against foreign rule).
• Their unity was forged in the fight against imperialism.
• None of them was an exact copy of European nationalism.
• Still, the nation-state came to be accepted everywhere as the normal form of political life.

Time, place and evidence

• Period: from 1871 to 1914. The key events are 1878 (Treaty of San Stefano, Congress of Berlin), 1912–13 (the two Balkan Wars) and 28 June 1914 (Sarajevo).
• Place: the Balkan peninsula of south-eastern Europe. Named places include Bosnia-Herzegovina, Novi Pazar, Macedonia, Albania, southern Dobruja, Dedeağaç (Alexandroúpolis) and Sarajevo.
• Empires and powers: the declining Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Germany and England.
• Key people:
• Otto von Bismarck dominated the Congress of Berlin. [3]
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Sophie were the victims at Sarajevo. [4]

• Gavrilo Princip was the assassin, linked to the Black Hand. [4]

• How we know:

• Official records of treaties and conferences: San Stefano (1878), Congress of Berlin (1878), the peace of London (1913) and the Treaty of Bucharest (1913). [2] [3]
• NCERT Class 10, Chapter 1, which presents the Balkans as the main source of tension after 1871.

Don't confuse with

• Treaty of San Stefano vs Congress of Berlin (both 1878): San Stefano (3 March) promised the Balkan states large territories. The Congress of Berlin (June–July) cut those territories down and gave Bosnia-Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary to occupy. [3]
• First vs Second Balkan War: In the First War (1912–13), the Balkan League fought the Ottoman Empire, and it ended with the peace of London (30 May 1913). In the Second War (1913), the allies fought each other over Macedonia, and it ended with the Treaty of Bucharest (10 August 1913). [2]
• Nationalism before 1871 vs after 1871: Earlier nationalism was liberal-democratic and wanted freedom for all peoples. After 1871, it became narrow, intolerant and ready for war, and the Great Powers used it for imperialist aims.
• Cause vs trigger of the First World War: The Sarajevo assassination (28 June 1914) was the trigger. The causes were the Ottoman break-up, jealous Balkan states and Great Power rivalry. [4]

Prelims Hooks

• The Balkans were the most serious source of tension in Europe after 1871. Its people were broadly called Slavs, and much of it was under the Ottoman Empire.
• The four rival powers in the Balkans were Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary.
• The Congress of Berlin (1878) recognised the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and let Austria-Hungary occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina. [3]
• Balkan League (First Balkan War, 1912–13) = Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro. Trap: Romania was not a member, and it fought against Bulgaria in the Second War. [2]
• Treaty of Bucharest (10 August 1913): Romania got southern Dobruja, Greece southern Macedonia, Serbia northern and central Macedonia. [2]
• Chronology: San Stefano (March 1878) → Congress of Berlin (June–July 1878) → peace of London (May 1913) → Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) → Sarajevo (28 June 1914). [2] [3] [4]

Mains Points

• Nationalism as a tool of imperialism: The Great Powers did not oppose Balkan nationalism. They backed it only where it helped them.
• At Berlin in 1878, Serbia and Romania were recognised as independent. [3]
• In the same settlement, Bosnia-Herzegovina was handed to Austria-Hungary. [3]

• So "self-determination" meant freedom for some Slavs and new subjection for others.

• Why 1914 began in the Balkans: Answers should combine three layers:

• a breaking-up Ottoman Empire whose reforms failed
• jealous successor states with clashing historical claims, which fought two wars in 1912–13 [2]
• four Great Powers competing over trade, colonies and naval strength

The Sarajevo killing was the trigger, not the cause. [4]

• Continuity and change: Nationalism changed from a liberal idea into a narrow, war-ready creed after 1871. This shows that nationalism has no fixed character: it takes the shape of the forces that carry it. In the colonies, including India, it became an anti-imperial force. People there united against a common foreign ruler, and the nation-state became the universal political form.

Related concepts

• Imperialism
• Ottoman Empire
• Sick man of Europe
• Eastern Question
• Crimean War
• Congress of Berlin 1878
• Pan-Slavism
• Austria-Hungary
• Young Turks
• Balkan Wars 1912-1913

Read more

• Nationalism, imperialism and the Balkans