Pressure group

Polity & Governance glossary

Topic: Civil Society, Pressure Groups, NGOs and Self-help Groups · NCERT: Class 10, Ch 1 "Power-sharing"; Class 10, Ch 4 "Political Parties"

Meaning

A pressure group is an organised group of people who share an interest or a cause, such as traders, farmers or workers. It tries to influence what the government decides, but it does not contest elections and does not seek office (a post in government).

Pressure groups matter because they let citizens shape policy between elections. They are also part of power-sharing: in a democracy, power is shared among parties, pressure groups and movements, not only among the organs of government.

Explanation

What a pressure group is

  • Interest group is the neutral term used in political science. It means any formal association that tries to shape public policy around shared concerns [3].

  • "Pressure group", "advocacy group" and "special interest group" are other names for the same thing [3][4].

  • Whom it serves:

  • Some groups seek benefits only for their own members, such as subsidies for farmers [3].

  • Others push a wider public goal, such as cleaner air [3].

  • Link with parties: many pressure groups are extensions of political parties among different sections of society.

  • Examples are a party's labour wing, student wing and kisan sabha (farmers' wing).

  • Their leaders are often party activists.

  • Effect on parties: parties sometimes change their policies under pressure from citizens, groups and the media. Pressure groups are one way ordinary people push for reform.

Types of pressure groups

  • By whom they serve:
  • Sectional (protective) groups defend one section of society, and only people from that section can join. Examples: trade unions, business chambers, farmers' unions and bar associations.
  • Promotional (cause) groups work for a cause that can benefit everyone, and anyone can join. Examples: environmental, anti-corruption and human-rights groups.

  • Peak associations are umbrella bodies for many business groups, such as FICCI (founded in 1927) and CII.

  • Almond–Powell typology (1966): Gabriel Almond and G. Bingham Powell, in Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach, sorted groups by how organised they are and where they work.

Type Meaning Indian examples
Institutional Work inside the state. They are part of formal institutions but push their own interests IAS/IPS associations, the military, blocs of legislators, service associations
Associational Formally organised for a stated interest, with rules, members and office-bearers AITUC, BMS, FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM, Bar Council, IMA
Non-associational Informal groups based on kinship, caste, religion, region, ethnicity or language, with no permanent structure Caste, religious, linguistic and regional groups
Anomic Sudden and short-lived groups that form around a grievance or an incident Riots, sudden demonstrations, street protests after an incident
  • Indian study: Myron Weiner's The Politics of Scarcity (1962) was an early study of organised interests in India. It looked at how business, labour, farmers', caste and linguistic groups made demands on a state with scarce resources.

How pressure groups work (methods)

  • Electioneering: they back candidates, gather voters and fund campaigns, but they do not put up candidates in their own name.

  • In the US, groups give money to candidates through political action committees (PACs) [3].

  • Lobbying: they try to persuade ministers and officials directly.

  • They also give evidence to Parliamentary Standing Committees (permanent committees of MPs that study bills and ministry budgets in detail) [3].

  • Pre-budget consultations: industry chambers, trade unions and farmers' groups send memoranda (written demands) to the Finance Ministry before the Union Budget.

  • Propaganda and media: press conferences, advertisements, reports and social-media campaigns. Public-relations campaigns are a common tactic [3].
  • Litigation and PIL: a Public Interest Litigation (a case filed for the public, or for people who cannot go to court themselves) can be filed in a High Court (Article 226) or the Supreme Court (Article 32).
  • Direct action: petitions, dharnas (sit-ins), strikes, bandhs, gheraos (surrounding an official until demands are heard) and hunger strikes.

Limits on pressure groups

  • The right to protest comes from the Constitution:
  • Article 19(1)(a) protects speech and expression.

  • Article 19(1)(b) protects the right to assemble peacefully and without arms.

  • The state can limit this right: it may impose reasonable restrictions under Articles 19(2) and 19(3), for example to protect public order.

  • No lobbying law: India has no law that makes lobbyists register or disclose what they do. Private Members' Bills on this subject have lapsed.

In the Constitution and practice

  • Constitutional base: the Constitution does not use the term "pressure group". These groups work through:
  • Article 19(1)(a) for speech and Article 19(1)(b) for peaceful assembly, limited by Articles 19(2) and 19(3);

  • Article 32 and Article 226 for PILs.

  • Landmark cases on direct action:

Case Year Principle
CPI(M) v. Bharat Kumar 1997 The Supreme Court upheld the Kerala High Court's ruling that enforced bandhs are unconstitutional, because they violate other citizens' rights. A hartal (a voluntary call to stop work) is treated differently.
T.K. Rangarajan v. Govt. of Tamil Nadu 2003 Government employees have no fundamental right to strike.
MKSS v. Union of India 2018 A total ban on protests at Jantar Mantar and Boat Club in Delhi is not valid. Police must frame guidelines that balance protesters' rights against residents' rights.
Amit Sahni v. Commissioner of Police 2020 Shaheen Bagh case: public roads cannot be occupied indefinitely. Protests must be held at designated sites.
  • Lobbying laws compared:
  • United States: the Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995 makes lobbyists register and report their clients, issues and spending.
  • European Union: lobbyists must sign up to a Transparency Register before they can meet officials.

  • India: there is no law. The Code of Conduct for ministers and the service conduct rules apply only indirectly.

  • Walmart episode (2012):

  • Walmart's US lobbying disclosures showed spending that included market access in India.
  • This came during the debate on FDI in multi-brand retail and caused an uproar in Parliament.

  • The government set up a one-member inquiry under retired Justice Mukul Mudgal (2012–13).

  • Legitimate ways to influence law-making:

  • Pre-Legislative Consultation Policy (2014): a draft bill should be placed in the public domain for 30 days for comments, along with the reasons for the law, its financial cost and an estimate of its impact [2].
    • The policy is not binding on ministries [2].
    • 227 of 301 bills introduced after the policy began had no prior consultation [2].
    • Of the 74 bills that were put out for comment, at least 40 did not give the full 30 days [2].
  • Committee submissions: Standing Committees invite public views through newspaper advertisements. But fewer bills now go to committees: 60% in the 14th Lok Sabha, 71% in the 15th and 25% in the 16th (2014–19) [2].

Don't confuse with

  • Political party: a party contests elections, wants to run the government and is directly answerable to voters. It also aggregates (combines) many interests into one programme. A pressure group does none of these things and usually stands for one interest or cause.
  • Social movement: a movement, such as the Chipko movement or the Narmada Bachao Andolan, is looser and broader, often works outside institutions and may have no formal members. A pressure group is organised, with members, office-bearers and a fixed agenda.
  • Institutional vs associational group: institutional groups (the IAS association, the military) are part of the state. Associational groups (FICCI, trade unions) are formal bodies that stay outside the state.
  • Bandh vs hartal: an enforced bandh forces people to stay home and is unconstitutional (CPI(M) v. Bharat Kumar, 1997). A hartal is a voluntary call to stop work and is treated differently.

Prelims Hooks

  • The key test: a pressure group does not contest elections or seek office. A party does both.
  • Almond and Powell (1966) gave four types: institutional, associational, non-associational and anomic. Riots and sudden protests are anomic. Caste and kinship groups are non-associational.
  • Myron Weiner's The Politics of Scarcity (1962) was an early study of organised interests in India.
  • CPI(M) v. Bharat Kumar (1997): enforced bandhs are unconstitutional. T.K. Rangarajan (2003): government employees have no fundamental right to strike.
  • MKSS (2018): a total ban on protests at Jantar Mantar is invalid. Amit Sahni (2020): public roads cannot be occupied indefinitely.
  • Trap: India has no lobbying registration law. The US has the Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995 and the EU has a Transparency Register. The 2014 Pre-Legislative Consultation Policy (30 days for public comment) is not binding [2].

Mains Points

  • Pressure groups strengthen democracy, but they can also distort it:
  • They speak for interests between elections, give expert input to Standing Committees and give weaker sections a voice.
  • But they can cause regulatory capture (regulators end up serving the industry they are meant to control) and add money power. Big business chambers are heard more often than farm labourers or street vendors.

  • When pressure groups are party wings (labour, student and kisan fronts), the line between civil society and party politics becomes blurred.

  • Protest and public order must be balanced:

  • The courts protect peaceful protest under Article 19(1)(a)–(b).
  • But they have ruled out forced bandhs (1997), a fundamental right to strike for government employees (2003) and indefinite road blockades (2020).

  • Designated protest sites (MKSS, 2018) are better than total bans.

  • Reforms:

  • Pass a lobbying disclosure law with a public register.
  • Make the 2014 consultation policy binding by law, since 227 of 301 bills had no consultation [2].
  • Send bills to committees by default, since only 25% were referred in 2014–19 [2].
  • Require full disclosure of political funding.

Related concepts

Read more

Sources

  1. 1Class 10, Ch 1 "Power-sharing"; Class 10, Ch 4 "Political Parties" (primary)
  2. 2PRS Legislative Research, "The Faults in India's Law-Making Process"prsindia.org · tier 1
  3. 3Britannica, "Interest group"britannica.com · tier 3
  4. 4Britannica Dictionary, "Pressure group"britannica.com · tier 3