Using river water: usability, disputes and interlinking

Detail

1. How usable is river water?

• Usability of river water: the share of a river's flow that people can actually store, move and use for drinking, irrigation, industry and power. It is not the same as the total water the river carries.
• India's rivers carry huge volumes of water, but the flow is uneven in time and in space.
• Uneven in time: most of the flow comes in the 3–4 monsoon months. Much of this floodwater runs to the sea unused.
• Uneven in space: the Himalayan rivers (Ganga, Brahmaputra) carry far more water than the Peninsular rivers of the rain-shadow plateau.

• Result: in the same season, one region floods (Assam, Bihar) while another faces drought (interior Karnataka, Marathwada, Bundelkhand).

• Perennial vs non-perennial rivers:

Feature	Perennial (Himalayan)	Non-perennial (mostly Peninsular)
Source of water	Monsoon rain + melting snow and glaciers	Monsoon rain only
Dry-season flow	Flows all year	Little or no water in the dry season
Examples	Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra	Many plateau rivers; Ken and Betwa have low summer flow

• The NCERT question: Class 11 asks whether India's water problem is one of availability (not enough water) or of management (water exists but is not stored, moved or shared well). The usual answer: mostly a problem of management, because floodwater is wasted while nearby areas go dry.

2. Problems that limit the use of river water

• Class 11 asks students to rank these problems: 1. Too little water (insufficient quantity), especially in the dry season. 2. Pollution. 3. Silt load: rivers carry a lot of sediment. It fills reservoirs and canals and reduces how much they can hold. 4. Uneven seasonal flow: floods in the monsoon, low flow in summer. 5. Inter-state disputes over sharing water. 6. Channels shrinking as towns and farms spread onto the riverbed, towards the thalweg.

• Thalweg: the line joining the deepest points along a river channel.

• It shows where the main current flows.
• It is also used to fix river boundaries. A boundary set "along the thalweg" follows the deepest channel, not the bank.

• Example: the Sir Creek dispute between India and Pakistan (Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat) is partly about whether the boundary runs along the thalweg of the creek or along its bank.

• Why a shrinking channel matters:

• Settlements move onto the floodplain and riverbed.
• The river has less room to carry floodwater.
• Floods in the monsoon become worse, and the river can store less water.

3. River pollution

• Sources of pollution:
• City sewage: untreated waste from towns along the river.
• Industrial effluents: liquid waste from factories, such as tanneries, sugar mills and chemical units.
• Cremation: half-burnt bodies and ash put into rivers.
• Idol immersion at festivals, which adds paint, plaster and other material.

• Bathing and washing of clothes and animals.

• Clean-up campaigns: the Ganga Action Plan and campaigns to clean the Yamuna, the most polluted stretch of which runs through Delhi and Agra.

4. Inter-basin transfers already in use (Class 11 examples)

• Inter-basin transfer: moving water from one river basin (usually one with "surplus" water) to another that lacks water, by dams, tunnels and canals.

Scheme	From → To	Where	Key fact
Periyar diversion scheme	Periyar (west-flowing, Kerala) → Vaigai basin (east-flowing, Tamil Nadu)	Western Ghats, Kerala–TN border	Water is sent east through the Ghats to irrigate dry Madurai–Theni country
Indira Gandhi Canal	Satluj–Beas water from Harike barrage (Punjab) → Thar Desert (Rajasthan)	Punjab–Rajasthan	Takes Himalayan water deep into the desert
Kurnool–Cuddapah canal	Krishna basin (Tungabhadra) → Pennar basin	Andhra Pradesh	An early Krishna–Pennar transfer, built in the 1860s
Beas–Satluj link	Beas at Pandoh (Himachal Pradesh) → Satluj	Himachal Pradesh	Adds Beas water to the Satluj for the Bhakra dam
Ganga–Kaveri link canal (proposed, dropped)	Ganga → Kaveri	Across north India and the Deccan Plateau	K.L. Rao's 1972 proposal for a canal of about 2,640 km

• Why the Ganga–Kaveri link was dropped:
• The Ganga flows on the low northern plains. The Kaveri basin lies on the higher Deccan Plateau.
• Water would have to be lifted about 450 m onto the plateau.
• Pumping that much water uphill needs huge amounts of energy, at a very high cost.
• Class 11 asks why lifting water from plain to plateau is a problem. The answer is energy and cost.

5. Interlinking of rivers (ILR)

• Interlinking of rivers: a national plan to join "surplus" basins to "deficit" basins with dams, canals and tunnels, so that floodwater in one area can meet drought in another.
• National Perspective Plan (NPP), 1980: it lists 30 links in two parts.
• Himalayan component: 14 links. These would store water from the Ganga and Brahmaputra and their tributaries and send it west and south.

• Peninsular component: 16 links. These join the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri, plus west-flowing rivers.

• National Water Development Agency (NWDA): set up in 1982 to study these links.

• Progress on studies: NWDA has finished Pre-Feasibility Reports for all 30 links, Feasibility Reports for 26 and Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for 13 [8].
• Priority links: the Ken–Betwa link, the Modified Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal link, and the Godavari–Cauvery link (which has three sub-links) are named as priority projects [8].

5a. Ken–Betwa Link Project: the first link under way

• Rivers: the Ken and the Betwa are both right-bank tributaries of the Yamuna. Both flow north across the Bundelkhand region (Madhya Pradesh–Uttar Pradesh), which often faces drought.
• Idea: "surplus" Ken water is moved to the Betwa basin.
• Timeline:
• 8 December 2021: the Union Cabinet approved the project [2]. Total cost about ₹44,605 crore.
• The Centre's support is ₹39,317 crore: a ₹36,290 crore grant and a ₹3,027 crore loan [2].

• 25 December 2024: the Prime Minister laid the foundation stone at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh [4].

• Daudhan dam: 96.7 m high, on the Ken, in Panna and Chhatarpur districts (Madhya Pradesh), about 40 km from Khajuraho [3].

• Its reservoir will flood part of Panna Tiger Reserve.

• Planned benefits [3]:

• Irrigation of 10.62 lakh ha every year.
• Drinking water for about 62 lakh people.

• 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.

• Status: the dam is being built, but canal work has not yet started [3][9].

5b. Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal–ERCP link

• Rivers: the Parbati and Kalisindh are tributaries of the Chambal (Yamuna system). They flow north from the Malwa Plateau (Madhya Pradesh) into Rajasthan.
• History:
• The NWDA Feasibility Report of the Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal (PKC) link went to the states in February 2004 [5].
• Rajasthan proposed its own Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP) in 2019 [5].

• The two plans were merged into the Modified PKC–ERCP link.

• Agreements:

• 28 January 2024: an MoU (Memorandum of Understanding: a written agreement to cooperate) was signed by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and the Ministry of Jal Shakti [5].

• 5 December 2024: a Memorandum of Agreement for carrying out the project was signed by the two states and the Union Government [6].

• Benefits:

• Drinking water and water for industry in 13 districts of eastern Rajasthan, and in the Malwa and Chambal regions of Madhya Pradesh.
• Irrigation of at least 2.8 lakh ha in each state, at least 5.6 lakh ha in total [5].

5c. Godavari–Cauvery link

• Idea: move Godavari "surplus" water south through the Krishna and Pennar basins to the Cauvery.

• Three sub-links (draft DPR sent to the states in March 2019) [8]: 1. Godavari (Inchampalli/Janampet) → Krishna (Nagarjunasagar) 2. Krishna (Nagarjunasagar) → Pennar (Somasila) 3. Pennar (Somasila) → Cauvery (Grand Anicut)

• Current plan (an interim arrangement): move about 4,189 MCM (million cubic metres) from the Godavari. It is combined with the Bedti–Varda link, which would add water to the Krishna basin. NWDA has prepared a Technical Feasibility Report, a draft DPR and a draft Memorandum of Agreement and sent them to the states [8].

5d. The debate over interlinking

Issue	Concern
Do surpluses exist?	"Surplus" basins may themselves be short of water in dry years. States such as Odisha and Andhra Pradesh question the figures.
Ecological flow	Ecological flow: the minimum water a river must keep to support fish, wetlands and people downstream. Diverting water can cut this flow.
Delta starvation	Dams trap silt. Deltas such as those of the Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi get less sediment, so they sink and the sea eats into them.
Submergence and displacement	Reservoirs flood forests and villages. Example: Panna Tiger Reserve under Ken–Betwa.
Cost	Lakhs of crores for the whole programme. Ken–Betwa alone costs about ₹44,605 crore.
Seismicity	Big dams and canals in the Himalaya cross earthquake-prone zones.
State consent	Water is a state subject. Each link needs the states that share the basin to agree.

6. Inter-state river water disputes

• Why disputes arise: most big rivers cross more than one state. Upstream states can hold back water, while downstream states depend on the flow.
• Art. 262 of the Constitution: Parliament may make a law to settle disputes over inter-state rivers. It may also keep courts out of such disputes.
• Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956: made under Art. 262.
• The Centre sets up a tribunal (a special body of judges) when a state asks for one.
• The tribunal's award (its final decision) is final and binding, and the Act bars courts from hearing the dispute.

• But: in the Cauvery case (2016–18) the Supreme Court held that it can still hear appeals against awards under Art. 136 (special leave to appeal). It changed the Cauvery shares in 2018.

• Tribunals set up under the Act:

Tribunal	States involved
Krishna	Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (and later Telangana)
Godavari	Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha
Narmada	Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Ravi–Beas (1986)	Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
Cauvery	Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry
Vansadhara	Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
Mahadayi (Mhadei)	Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra
Mahanadi	Odisha, Chhattisgarh

• Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2019:
• It was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 25 July 2019 and passed by the Lok Sabha on 31 July 2019 [7]. It has not yet become law.
• It would create one permanent tribunal with several benches. All existing tribunals would be dissolved and their pending cases moved to it [7].
• Members: a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson, 3 judicial members and 3 expert members. Each bench has a Chairperson or Vice-Chairperson, one judicial member and one expert member [7].
• Time limit: a decision within 2 years, which can be extended by 1 year. The 1956 Act allows 3 years plus 2 [7].

7. Krishna water dispute

• Krishna: rises near Mahabaleshwar (Western Ghats, Maharashtra). It flows east through Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh to the Bay of Bengal.
• Timeline:
• Bachawat tribunal (first Krishna tribunal): award in 1976.
• Brijesh Kumar tribunal (second Krishna tribunal): set up in 2004, with reports in 2010 and 2013. It took up the sharing of Krishna water again.
• 2014: when Telangana was carved out of Andhra Pradesh, the sharing of Krishna water between the two new states had to be settled again.

8. Satluj–Yamuna Link (SYL) canal

• Purpose: a 214 km canal to carry Haryana's share of Ravi–Beas water from the Satluj (Punjab) to the Yamuna basin (Haryana).
• Status:
• Haryana finished its part of the canal.
• Punjab stopped work on its part.
• 2002: the Supreme Court ordered the canal to be completed.
• 2004: Punjab passed a law ending its water-sharing agreements. The Supreme Court struck this law down in 2016.

• The dispute is still before the Supreme Court.

• Root cause: Punjab says it has no surplus water to give. Haryana says the agreements and the Ravi–Beas tribunal promise it a share.

Prelims Hooks

• Thalweg = the line joining the deepest points along a river channel. It is used to fix river boundaries (for example, the Sir Creek dispute in Gujarat).
• Periyar diversion sends water from Kerala to the Vaigai basin in Tamil Nadu. A west-flowing river is turned east across the Western Ghats.
• Indira Gandhi Canal starts at Harike barrage (Satluj–Beas meeting point, Punjab) and runs into the Thar.
• Ganga–Kaveri link (K.L. Rao, 1972, about 2,640 km) was dropped because of the energy cost of lifting water about 450 m onto the plateau.
• NPP 1980: 30 links, 14 Himalayan and 16 Peninsular. NWDA was set up in 1982.
• Ken–Betwa: Cabinet approval 8 Dec 2021. Foundation stone 25 Dec 2024 at Khajuraho. Daudhan dam (96.7 m) is in Panna–Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh, and will flood part of Panna Tiger Reserve [2][3][4].
• PKC–ERCP: Parbati and Kalisindh are tributaries of the Chambal. MoU on 28 Jan 2024, MoA on 5 Dec 2024, between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan [5][6].
• Godavari–Cauvery sub-links, in order north to south: Inchampalli/Janampet → Nagarjunasagar → Somasila → Grand Anicut [8].
• Art. 262 + ISRWD Act 1956: tribunal awards are final, but the SC can still hear appeals under Art. 136 (Cauvery, 2018). The 2019 Bill for a single permanent tribunal has passed only the Lok Sabha [7].
• Trap: the Mahadayi/Mhadei tribunal involves Goa, Karnataka and Maharashtra, not Kerala. The Ravi–Beas tribunal dates to 1986.

Mains Points

• Availability vs management (GS-I/III): India's water crisis comes mostly from uneven flow in time and space, silt, pollution and shrinking channels, not from a lack of water. Possible answers: storage, watershed management, pollution control (Ganga and Yamuna campaigns) and keeping floodplains free of buildings.
• Interlinking (GS-III): Ken–Betwa (10.62 lakh ha irrigation, water for 62 lakh people) and PKC–ERCP (5.6 lakh ha or more) promise drought relief for Bundelkhand and eastern Rajasthan [3][5]. Against this stand doubtful "surpluses", ecological flows, deltas starved of silt, the loss of part of Panna Tiger Reserve, seismic risk and cost. Projects should go basin by basin, with consent and environmental checks.
• Federal water disputes (GS-I/II link): tribunals are slow (Krishna: 1976 award, reopened in 2004 and again in 2014). Awards are hard to enforce (SYL: Haryana's part is finished, Punjab's is stalled, and Punjab's 2004 law was struck down in 2016). The SC still hears appeals under Art. 136. The 2019 Bill's single tribunal with fixed time limits is the proposed reform [7].
• Old transfers as models: the Periyar, Kurnool–Cuddapah, Beas–Satluj and Indira Gandhi Canal schemes show that transfers within a region work. The Ganga–Kaveri plan shows the physical limits: lifting water from plain to plateau costs too much energy.