Rare earth elements

Geography glossary

Also called: REE · Topic: Mineral Resources of India: Distribution and Conservation · NCERT: Beyond NCERT

Meaning

Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of 17 metals: the 15 lanthanides (lanthanum to lutetium) plus scandium and yttrium.

They matter because they are used to make strong permanent magnets for electric vehicle (EV) motors, wind turbines, electronics and defence. China controls most of the world's supply, so for India, REEs are an issue of strategic dependence (relying on another country for something vital).

Explanation

What REEs are, and why they are called "rare"

  • 17 elements = 15 lanthanides + scandium + yttrium.
  • They are not actually scarce in the Earth's crust. The problem is that deposits rich enough to mine are rare [5].
  • Thorium and uranium are often found with REEs, but they are not REEs.

Where Indian REEs come from: monazite

  • Monazite is a phosphate mineral. It is the main source of REEs and thorium.

  • It holds about 55–60% total rare earth oxides (REO) and about 9–10% thorium oxide [3].

  • India has about 13.15 million tonnes of monazite. This holds about 7.23 million tonnes of REO equivalent [3].

  • Because monazite contains thorium, it counts as an atomic mineral (a mineral holding elements used for nuclear energy).
  • Thorium is a prescribed substance, which means only the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) may handle it [3].

How monazite beach sands form (cause → process → result)

  • Cause: rivers wear down old crystalline rocks of the Peninsula and carry the grains to the sea.
  • Process: waves and currents wash the beach again and again.
  • Light quartz sand is carried away.

  • Heavy grains stay behind.

  • Result: a placer deposit forms. This is a layer on the beach that is rich in heavy minerals.

  • Monazite lies here together with ilmenite, rutile, zircon, garnet and sillimanite.

Uses and the supply chain

  • Biggest use: neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets. Magnets are the largest use of rare earths worldwide [5].

  • These magnets go into EV motors, wind turbines, electronics and defence equipment.

  • The chain: mining → separating and refining into oxides and metals → magnet-making.

  • India mines some REEs, but it refines very little and makes very few magnets.
  • China leads in mining, and it leads even more in refining and magnet-making.

Where it occurs

India: coastal beach sands and teri

  • India held about 6% of world REE reserves in 2023 [4]. Most of this lies in monazite sands.
  • Monazite is found in coastal beach sands and teri (red sand dunes) in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat [3].
  • It is also found in inland alluvium (sand and silt left by rivers) in Jharkhand, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu [3].
  • Key coastal sites:
  • Chavara–Neendakara coast (Kollam and Alappuzha), Kerala
  • Manavalakurichi (Kanniyakumari district), Tamil Nadu
  • Chhatrapur (Ganjam district), Odisha. This is the site of OSCOM, IREL's Odisha Sands Complex.
  • near Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
  • Mahanadi delta, Odisha

India: who mines and processes

  • Since 2019, only government bodies may mine beach sands that contain monazite. In practice this is mainly IREL (India) Ltd. The rule comes under the Atomic Minerals Concession Rules, 2016.
  • IREL is fully owned by the DAE. It is the only company in India that processes monazite into rare earth compounds and thorium [3].

  • It has plants at Aluva (Kerala) and Chatrapur (Odisha) [4].

  • India's output: mine output was 2,900 tonnes REO in 2025, out of a world total of 3,90,000 tonnes [5].

  • USGS lists India's reserves as "not available" in 2026.
  • A 2015 OSCOM report gave monazite reserves of 2,56,000 tonnes at its own operations [5].

World: China

  • China mined 2,70,000 tonnes in 2025, about 69% of world output [5].
  • It holds 44 million tonnes of the world's more than 75 million tonnes of reserves (USGS 2026) [5].
  • China's 2025 export curbs:
  • April 2025: export controls on samarium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, lutetium, scandium and yttrium [5].
  • October 2025: it added europium, holmium, erbium, thulium and ytterbium [5].
  • November 2025: it suspended the October controls for one year. The April controls stayed in force [5].
  • Indian EV makers were hit by the shortage of magnets.

India's policy response: the REPM scheme

  • The Union Cabinet approved the "Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Sintered Rare Earth Permanent Magnets" on 26 November 2025 [1].

  • A sintered magnet is made by pressing metal powder and heating it until the grains fuse into a solid block, without melting it.

  • Money: ₹7,280 crore in total [1].

  • ₹6,450 crore as incentives linked to magnet sales over 5 years.

  • ₹750 crore as capital subsidy for building plants.

  • Target: 6,000 MTPA (metric tonnes per annum) of integrated magnet capacity [1]. Integrated means one plant covers every step, from rare earth oxide to finished magnet.

  • Up to five firms, chosen by global competitive bidding. Each firm gets up to 1,200 MTPA [1].

  • The scheme runs for 7 years: 2 years to build the plant and 5 years of incentives [1].

  • Run by: the Ministry of Heavy Industries, which has issued the global tender [2].

Don't confuse with

  • Lanthanides vs REEs: the lanthanides are only 15 elements. REEs are 17, because scandium and yttrium are added.
  • Thorium and uranium: these are atomic (radioactive) elements, not REEs. Thorium is found in the same mineral (monazite), but it is a different element with a different use: nuclear fuel.
  • Monazite: this is a mineral (a phosphate) that contains REEs and thorium. It is not itself an element.
  • Other beach-sand minerals: ilmenite and rutile give titanium, and zircon gives zirconium. They are found on the same beaches but are not sources of REEs. Among the beach-sand minerals, only monazite gives REEs.

Prelims Hooks

  • REEs = 17 elements: 15 lanthanides + scandium + yttrium. Trap: thorium and uranium are not REEs.
  • Monazite is a phosphate mineral. It gives REEs + thorium and holds about 55–60% REO and 9–10% ThO₂ [3].
  • Place–state pairs: Chavara → Kerala; Manavalakurichi → Tamil Nadu (Kanniyakumari); Chhatrapur → Odisha (Ganjam).
  • NCERT trap: NCERT names "Palakkad and Kollam" for monazite. But the real coastal belt is Chavara–Neendakara (Kollam and Alappuzha). Palakkad is inland.
  • Only monazite processor in India: IREL, a DAE company, with plants at Aluva and Chatrapur.
  • REPM scheme: ₹7,280 crore and 6,000 MTPA, approved on 26 November 2025, run by the Ministry of Heavy Industries [1][2].

Mains Points

  • Strategic dependence (GS-III): India has about 6% of world reserves [4] but almost no refining or magnet-making.
  • China controls about 69% of mining [5], and even more of refining and magnet-making.
  • Its 2025 export curbs showed how exposed India's EV, wind and defence supply chains are.

  • Response: the REPM scheme, IREL's monazite processing and more exploration.

  • Coastal placer mining and the environment (GS-I/III): beach-sand mining in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Odisha can cause coastal erosion and radiation exposure (from thorium in monazite), and it affects fishing communities.

  • State control since 2019 cuts illegal mining but may slow investment.

  • Link to the thorium paradox (GS-III energy): the same monazite gives both REEs and thorium for Stage 3 of the three-stage nuclear programme.

  • So monazite policy has to balance two goals: nuclear security (DAE control) and industrial demand for rare earth magnets.

Related concepts

Read more

Sources

  1. 1Cabinet Approves Rs.7,280 Crore Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Sintered Rare Earth Permanent Magnets (REPM), PIBpib.gov.in · tier 1
  2. 2Ministry of Heavy Industries invites bids through Global Tender under the REPM Scheme, PIBpib.gov.in · tier 1
  3. 3Indian Minerals Yearbook 2022, Rare Earths, IBMibm.gov.in · tier 1
  4. 4USGS 2023 Minerals Yearbook: Indiapubs.usgs.gov · tier 2
  5. 5USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earthspubs.usgs.gov · tier 2