India and its smaller neighbours, 1949-1999

Detail

1. The big picture

• NCERT's chapter on India's external relations deals mainly with China and Pakistan. India's ties with its smaller neighbours (Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Bangladesh) were shaped by treaties, ethnic spill-over and river water.
• NCERT exercise 1(b) asks you to judge this statement: India's relations with its neighbours were strained "from the beginning". Treat it as false as a general rule. India signed friendship treaties with Bhutan (1949) and Nepal (1950) within three years of Independence. The trouble came later and in particular cases.
• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): the regional body of South Asian countries, founded at Dhaka in December 1985 with seven members. It gave India and its smaller neighbours a shared regional forum.

2. The Himalayan treaties

India-Bhutan Treaty of Friendship (8 August 1949)

• Definition: the treaty that set up the special relationship between India and Bhutan after 1947.
• Article 2 (1949): Bhutan agreed to be guided by India's advice in its external relations. India also promised not to interfere in Bhutan's internal affairs.
• 2007 revision: signed in New Delhi on 8 February 2007. It came into force when the two countries exchanged their instruments of ratification (the formal papers that confirm a treaty) in Thimphu on 2 March 2007 [2].
• New Article 2: the two governments will "cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests". Neither will let its territory be used for activities that harm the other's national security [2].
• Article 3: free trade and commerce continues "as heretofore" (as before) [2].
• Article 4: Bhutan may import arms through India "as long as" India is satisfied that Bhutan's intentions are friendly. Bhutan may not re-export those arms [2].
• Article 5: citizens of each country living in the other get equal justice [2].

• Article 10: the treaty stays in force in perpetuity (forever) unless both sides agree to end or change it [2].

• Why the change matters: Bhutan moved from taking India's "advice" to working with India as an equal partner on shared interests.

India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship (31 July 1950)

• Definition: the 1950 treaty that is the base of India-Nepal "special relations" [3].
• Main terms:
• an open border between the two countries;

• equal treatment of each other's citizens in residence, property, trade and work (national treatment).

• Nepal's complaint: Nepal sees the treaty as unequal. It was signed with the last Rana regime, and Nepal sees its security clauses as tying it too closely to India.

• Revision: India and Nepal have agreed to "review, adjust and update" the 1950 treaty so that it reflects "current realities" [3]. A bilateral Eminent Persons Group (EPG) set up for this worked from 2016 to 2018 (verify the current status of its report).

Sikkim: from protectorate to state

• Protectorate (a country that manages its own internal affairs while another country controls its defence and foreign affairs): Sikkim had this status under India from 1950. India handled Sikkim's defence, foreign affairs and communications.
• Constitution (35th Amendment) Act, 1974: made Sikkim an "associate state" of India. It added Article 2A and the Tenth Schedule (both later removed).
• Referendum, April 1975: Sikkim's people voted to end the monarchy and join India.
• Constitution (36th Amendment) Act, 1975: made Sikkim India's 22nd state. It added Article 371F (special provisions for Sikkim) and removed Article 2A and the old Tenth Schedule.
• For the full story, see the note on regional aspirations.

3. Sri Lanka: stateless people, an island, and the IPKF

Shastri-Sirimavo Pact (October 1964)

• Definition: an India-Sri Lanka agreement about stateless people of Indian origin. Most were Tamil plantation workers whom the British had brought to Ceylon. After Ceylon's independence they had no citizenship in either country.
• Terms for the roughly 9.75 lakh stateless people:

Group	Outcome
5.25 lakh	India to repatriate them (take them back) and give them Indian citizenship
3 lakh	Sri Lanka to give them citizenship
1.5 lakh	left open; settled by the 1974 Indira-Sirimavo agreement, which split them equally (75,000 each)

Katchatheevu agreement (1974)

• Definition: the 1974 maritime boundary agreement (an agreement fixing the sea border) under which India accepted Sri Lanka's sovereignty over Katchatheevu, a small uninhabited island in the Palk Strait.
• Dates: signed at Colombo on 26 June 1974 and at New Delhi on 28 June 1974 [4].
• Article 5: Indian fishermen and pilgrims could keep visiting Katchatheevu "as hitherto" (as before), without travel documents or visas [4]. The pilgrims go to the island's annual St Anthony's church festival.
• 1976 agreement (exchange of letters): fixed the sea boundary in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal. It barred each side's fishermen from fishing in the other's waters.
• Indian fishermen then lost the fishing access they had assumed under Article 5.
• Result: this is the root of today's fishermen disputes, in which Tamil Nadu fishermen are arrested and their boats seized.

Indo-Sri Lanka Accord (29 July 1987)

• Definition: an agreement signed in Colombo by PM Rajiv Gandhi and President J.R. Jayewardene to settle Sri Lanka's Tamil ethnic conflict [3].
• Key clauses [3]:
• 1.1: to keep Sri Lanka's unity, sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• 1.4: the Northern and Eastern Provinces were recognised as "areas of historical habitation" of Tamil-speaking peoples.
• 2.2 / 2.3: the North and East would be run as one administrative unit for a temporary period. The Eastern Province would hold a referendum by 31 December 1988 to decide whether to stay linked with the North.
• 2.9: a ceasefire within 48 hours of signing. Militant groups were to surrender their arms.
• 2.14: India would "underwrite and guarantee" the agreement (stand behind it and make sure it is carried out).
• 2.16(c): India would give military assistance if Sri Lanka asked for it.
• 2.18: Sinhala remains the official language. Tamil and English also become official languages.

• Annexure para 6: the President of Sri Lanka may invite an "Indian peace keeping contingent" to enforce the ceasefire.

• Devolution (handing some powers from the central government down to provinces): Sri Lanka did this through its 13th Amendment (1987), which created Provincial Councils.

Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), 1987-1990

• Definition: the Indian military force sent to Sri Lanka at Colombo's request under the 1987 Accord to disarm the Tamil militants.
• What went wrong:
• Trigger: the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) refused to disarm.
• Fighting: the IPKF ended up in costly battles with the LTTE, for example Operation Pawan (October 1987) in Jaffna. More than 1,000 Indian soldiers were killed.

• Exit: Sri Lanka's next President, R. Premadasa, wanted the force out. The IPKF withdrew in March 1990.

• What followed: the LTTE assassinated Rajiv Gandhi at Sriperumbudur (Tamil Nadu) on 21 May 1991.

4. Maldives: Operation Cactus (November 1988)

• Definition: India's military operation of 3 November 1988 that foiled a coup attempt in Malé (an attempt to seize power by force). India acted at the request of the Maldives government of President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom.
• The attackers: Sri Lankan Tamil mercenaries (soldiers paid to fight for someone else) tried to overthrow the government [5].
• India's response: Indian paratroopers were flown into Malé within hours. The Indian Navy intercepted the mercenaries as they escaped by ship.
• Effect: the quick help built long-term trust. The immediate withdrawal of Indian troops calmed fears of Indian dominance or territorial ambitions [5].

5. Bangladesh after 1971 (brief)

Treaty and border

• Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Peace (March 1972): signed by Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman for 25 years.
• Land Boundary Agreement (LBA), 1974: signed soon after Bangladesh became independent [6].
• Partly carried out: most of it was implemented. Three issues stayed open [6]:
  • about 6.1 km of border that had never been marked out, in Daikhata-56 (West Bengal), Muhuri River-Belonia (Tripura) and Lathitila-Dumabari (Assam);
  • enclaves (small pockets of one country's land surrounded by the other country);
  • adverse possessions (land held by people of one country inside the other country's boundary).
• Not ratified: India did not ratify the 1974 LBA [6].
• 2011 Protocol: an add-on agreement signed on 6 September 2011 [6]. It provided for the exchange of 111 Indian enclaves (17,160.63 acres) for 51 Bangladeshi enclaves (7,110.02 acres) [6]. A joint headcount in July 2011 found 51,549 people living in the enclaves [6].
• Why the Constitution had to be amended: handing over territory needed a constitutional amendment [6]. Under the Berubari Union case (1960), giving up Indian territory needs an amendment under Article 368. A law under Article 3 is not enough. This was done by the Constitution (100th Amendment) Act, 2015, which amended the First Schedule. The LBA was implemented in 2015.

Farakka and the Ganga Waters Treaty

• The dispute: India built the Farakka barrage (a dam-like structure across the river) to push Ganga water into the Hooghly and keep Kolkata port usable. It was commissioned in 1975. Bangladesh said this cut the water reaching it in the dry season. Short-term deals were tried, including a 1977 agreement (for five years) and MoUs in the 1980s.
• Ganga Waters Treaty (12 December 1996):
• What it does: shares the Ganga's water at Farakka in the lean season (the dry months when river flow is lowest), 1 January to 31 May [7].
• How: water is shared in 10-day periods using a formula set out in the treaty [7].
• Who signed: PM H.D. Deve Gowda and PM Sheikh Hasina, while I.K. Gujral was External Affairs Minister.
• How long: valid for 30 years, until December 2026 (verify the current renewal status).
• Follow-up: water issues are discussed under the Joint Rivers Commission (India-Bangladesh body set up in 1972) [7].

6. Two doctrines

Feature	Indira Doctrine	Gujral Doctrine
Period	1970s-80s (informal; never formally announced)	1996-97 (I.K. Gujral as External Affairs Minister, then PM)
Core idea	No outside power should interfere in South Asia. India treats the region as its security sphere.	India gives and accommodates smaller neighbours without asking for reciprocity (something in return).
Compared to	The Monroe Doctrine (the USA's 1823 policy of keeping European powers out of the Americas)	Good-neighbour policy
Examples	1971 (Bangladesh war), Sri Lanka 1987 (Accord and IPKF), Maldives 1988 (Operation Cactus)	Ganga Waters Treaty (1996) is its main result

Gujral Doctrine: the five principles

1. With Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka, India does not ask for reciprocity. It gives and accommodates what it can in good faith.
2. No South Asian country should let its territory be used against another country of the region.
3. No interference in each other's internal affairs.
4. Respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
5. All disputes settled through peaceful bilateral negotiations (talks between the two countries involved).

• Gujral as PM: he was Prime Minister from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998. He is remembered for this policy of India reaching out to its neighbours unilaterally (on its own), without expecting the same in return [8].
• Why it was different: the Indira Doctrine stressed India's security and leadership. The Gujral Doctrine stressed trust-building through generosity. India is the much bigger country, so it could afford to give without asking for anything back.

Prelims Hooks

• India-Bhutan treaty: signed 1949 and revised 2007. The 2007 version dropped the clause that Bhutan would be "guided by India's advice" in external relations. It now says both sides will cooperate on national interests (Article 2) [2].
• India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship: 31 July 1950. It provides an open border and national treatment (equal treatment) of each other's citizens.
• Shastri-Sirimavo Pact (1964): India takes back 5.25 lakh, Sri Lanka gives citizenship to 3 lakh, and the remaining 1.5 lakh were settled in 1974.
• Katchatheevu: India recognised Sri Lanka's sovereignty over it in 1974. Article 5 kept access for pilgrims and fishermen [4]. The 1976 agreement banned fishing in each other's waters.
• Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: 29 July 1987, Rajiv Gandhi and J.R. Jayewardene. It made Tamil an official language (clause 2.18) and led to Sri Lanka's 13th Amendment [3].
• Trap: the IPKF went to Sri Lanka at Colombo's request, not on India's own initiative. It withdrew in March 1990.
• Operation Cactus: Maldives, November 1988, a coup by mercenaries foiled at the request of President Gayoom [5].
• Ganga Waters Treaty: 12 December 1996. It shares water at Farakka, lean season 1 January-31 May, in 10-day periods, for 30 years [7].
• LBA: signed in 1974 but implemented only in 2015, through the 100th Amendment Act, 2015. It exchanged 111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi enclaves [6].
• Match the doctrine: Indira Doctrine = South Asia as India's security sphere (a regional Monroe Doctrine). Gujral Doctrine = non-reciprocity towards smaller neighbours.

Mains Points

• Big brother vs good neighbour (GS-II): the Indira Doctrine and the IPKF show the cost of acting as the regional security manager. India lost more than 1,000 soldiers, angered Tamil opinion at home, and Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated in 1991. The Gujral Doctrine shows that small, one-sided concessions can settle old disputes, as the Ganga treaty (1996) did. A balanced answer argues for security firmness plus economic generosity.
• Old treaties and today's sovereignty concerns (GS-II): the 2007 revision of the Bhutan treaty shows that a treaty can be updated by agreement to reflect the smaller partner's sovereignty. Nepal's demand to revise the 1950 treaty shows the cost of delay. One fix is to review old treaties regularly with bilateral expert groups such as the Eminent Persons Group.
• Centre-state angle in foreign policy (GS-II): state concerns shaped these deals. Tamil Nadu shaped Sri Lanka policy (Katchatheevu, the fishermen, the IPKF). West Bengal and Assam shaped the Farakka and LBA talks. The Berubari ruling (1960) and the 100th Amendment (2015) show that giving up territory needs Parliament's approval through a constitutional amendment. A federal consultation mechanism for treaties is a reform worth discussing.
• River diplomacy (GS-I/II): the Ganga Waters Treaty expires in 2026. It is a test of whether India can manage shared rivers through joint institutions (the Joint Rivers Commission) instead of one-sided structures like Farakka.